MFC Programmer's SourceBook : Thinking in C++

Bruce Eckel's Thinking in C++, 2nd Ed Contents | Prev | Next

Overloadable operators

Although you can overload almost all the operators available in C, the use is fairly restrictive. In particular, you cannot combine operators that currently have no meaning in C (such as ** to represent exponentiation), you cannot change the evaluation precedence of operators, and you cannot change the number of arguments an operator takes. This makes sense – all these actions would produce operators that confuse meaning rather than clarify it.

The next two subsections give examples of all the “regular” operators, overloaded in the form that you’ll most likely use.

Unary operators

The following example shows the syntax to overload all the unary operators , both in the form of global functions and member functions. These will expand upon the Integer class shown previously and add a new byte class. The meaning of your particular operators will depend on the way you want to use them, but consider the client programmer before doing something unexpected.

//: C12:Unary.cpp
// Overloading unary operators
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Integer {
  long i;
  Integer* This() { return this; }
public:
  Integer(long ll = 0) : i(ll) {}
  // No side effects takes const& argument:
  friend const Integer&
    operator+(const Integer& a);
  friend const Integer
    operator-(const Integer& a);
  friend const Integer
    operator~(const Integer& a);
  friend Integer*
    operator&(Integer& a);
  friend int
    operator!(const Integer& a);
  // Side effects don't take const& argument:
  // Prefix:
  friend const Integer&
    operator++(Integer& a);
  // Postfix:
  friend const Integer
    operator++(Integer& a, int);
  // Prefix:
  friend const Integer&
    operator--(Integer& a);
  // Postfix:
  friend const Integer
    operator--(Integer& a, int);
};

// Global operators:
const Integer& operator+(const Integer& a) {
  cout << "+Integer\n";
  return a; // Unary + has no effect
}
const Integer operator-(const Integer& a) {
  cout << "-Integer\n";
  return Integer(-a.i);
}
const Integer operator~(const Integer& a) {
  cout << "~Integer\n";
  return Integer(~a.i);
}
Integer* operator&(Integer& a) {
  cout << "&Integer\n";
  return a.This(); // &a is recursive!
}
int operator!(const Integer& a) {
  cout << "!Integer\n";
  return !a.i;
}
// Prefix; return incremented value
const Integer& operator++(Integer& a) {
  cout << "++Integer\n";
  a.i++;
  return a;
}
// Postfix; return the value before increment:
const Integer operator++(Integer& a, int) {
  cout << "Integer++\n";
  Integer r(a.i);
  a.i++;
  return r;
}
// Prefix; return decremented value
const Integer& operator--(Integer& a) {
  cout << "--Integer\n";
  a.i--;
  return a;
}
// Postfix; return the value before decrement:
const Integer operator--(Integer& a, int) {
  cout << "Integer--\n";
  Integer r(a.i);
  a.i--;
  return r;
}

void f(Integer a) {
  +a;
  -a;
  ~a;
  Integer* ip = &a;
  !a;
  ++a;
  a++;
  --a;
  a--;
}

// Member operators (implicit "this"):
class Byte {
  unsigned char b;
public:
  Byte(unsigned char bb = 0) : b(bb) {}
  // No side effects: const member function:
  const Byte& operator+() const {
    cout << "+Byte\n";
    return *this;
  }
  const Byte operator-() const {
    cout << "-Byte\n";
    return Byte(-b);
  }
  const Byte operator~() const {
    cout << "~Byte\n";
    return Byte(~b);
  }
  Byte operator!() const {
    cout << "!Byte\n";
    return Byte(!b);
  }
  Byte* operator&() {
    cout << "&Byte\n";
    return this;
  }
  // Side effects: non-const member function:
  const Byte& operator++() { // Prefix
    cout << "++Byte\n";
    b++;
    return *this;
  }
  const Byte operator++(int) { // Postfix
    cout << "Byte++\n";
    Byte before(b);
    b++;
    return before;
  }
  const Byte& operator--() { // Prefix
    cout << "--Byte\n";
    --b;
    return *this;
  }
  const Byte operator--(int) { // Postfix
    cout << "Byte--\n";
    Byte before(b);
    --b;
    return before;
  }
};

void g(Byte b) {
  +b;
  -b;
  ~b;
  Byte* bp = &b;
  !b;
  ++b;
  b++;
  --b;
  b--;
}

int main() {
  Integer a;
  f(a);
  Byte b;
  g(b);

} ///:~

The functions are grouped according to the way their arguments are passed. Guidelines for how to pass and return arguments are given later. The above forms (and the ones that follow in the next section) are typically what you’ll use, so start with them as a pattern when overloading your own operators.

Increment & decrement

The overloaded ++ and – – operators present a dilemma because you want to be able to call different functions depending on whether they appear before (prefix) or after (postfix) the object they’re acting upon. The solution is simple, but some people find it a bit confusing at first. When the compiler sees, for example, ++a (a preincrement), it generates a call to operator++(a); but when it sees a++, it generates a call to operator++(a, int) . That is, the compiler differentiates between the two forms by making different function calls. In Unary.cpp for the member function versions, if the compiler sees ++b, it generates a call to B::operator++( ); and if it sees b++ it calls B::operator++(int).

The user never sees the result of her action except that a different function gets called for the prefix and postfix versions. Underneath, however, the two functions calls have different signatures, so they link to two different function bodies. The compiler passes a dummy constant value for the int argument (which is never given an identifier because the value is never used) to generate the different signature for the postfix version.

Binary operators

The following listing repeats the example of Unary.cpp for binary operators. Both global versions and member function versions are shown.

//: C12:Binary.cpp
// Overloading binary operators
#include "../require.h"
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;

ofstream out("binary.out");

class Integer { // Combine this with Unary.cpp
  long i;
public:
  Integer(long ll = 0) : i(ll) {}
  // Operators that create new, modified value:
  friend const Integer
    operator+(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator-(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator*(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator/(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator%(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator^(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator&(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator|(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator<<(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend const Integer
    operator>>(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  // Assignments modify & return lvalue:
  friend Integer&
    operator+=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator-=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator*=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator/=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator%=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator^=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator&=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator|=(Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator>>=(Integer& left,
                const Integer& right);
  friend Integer&
    operator<<=(Integer& left,
                const Integer& right);
  // Conditional operators return true/false:
  friend int
    operator==(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend int
    operator!=(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend int
    operator<(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend int
    operator>(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right);
  friend int
    operator<=(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend int
    operator>=(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend int
    operator&&(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  friend int
    operator||(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right);
  // Write the contents to an ostream:
  void print(ostream& os) const { os << i; }
};

const Integer
  operator+(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i + right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator-(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i - right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator*(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i * right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator/(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  require(right.i != 0, "divide by zero");
  return Integer(left.i / right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator%(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  require(right.i != 0, "modulo by zero");
  return Integer(left.i % right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator^(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i ^ right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator&(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i & right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator|(const Integer& left,
            const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i | right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator<<(const Integer& left,
             const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i << right.i);
}
const Integer
  operator>>(const Integer& left,
             const Integer& right) {
  return Integer(left.i >> right.i);
}
// Assignments modify & return lvalue:
Integer& operator+=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i += right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator-=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i -= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator*=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i *= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator/=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   require(right.i != 0, "divide by zero");
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i /= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator%=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   require(right.i != 0, "modulo by zero");
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i %= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator^=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i ^= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator&=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i &= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator|=(Integer& left,
                    const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i |= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator>>=(Integer& left,
                     const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i >>= right.i;
   return left;
}
Integer& operator<<=(Integer& left,
                     const Integer& right) {
   if(&left == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
   left.i <<= right.i;
   return left;
}
// Conditional operators return true/false:
int operator==(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right) {
    return left.i == right.i;
}
int operator!=(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right) {
    return left.i != right.i;
}
int operator<(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right) {
    return left.i < right.i;
}
int operator>(const Integer& left,
              const Integer& right) {
    return left.i > right.i;
}
int operator<=(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right) {
    return left.i <= right.i;
}
int operator>=(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right) {
    return left.i >= right.i;
}
int operator&&(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right) {
    return left.i && right.i;
}
int operator||(const Integer& left,
               const Integer& right) {
    return left.i || right.i;
}

void h(Integer& c1, Integer& c2) {
  // A complex expression:
  c1 += c1 * c2 + c2 % c1;
  #define TRY(OP) \
  out << "c1 = "; c1.print(out); \
  out << ", c2 = "; c2.print(out); \
  out << ";  c1 " #OP " c2 produces "; \
  (c1 OP c2).print(out); \
  out << endl;
  TRY(+) TRY(-) TRY(*) TRY(/)
  TRY(%) TRY(^) TRY(&) TRY(|)
  TRY(<<) TRY(>>) TRY(+=) TRY(-=)
  TRY(*=) TRY(/=) TRY(%=) TRY(^=)
  TRY(&=) TRY(|=) TRY(>>=) TRY(<<=)
  // Conditionals:
  #define TRYC(OP) \
  out << "c1 = "; c1.print(out); \
  out << ", c2 = "; c2.print(out); \
  out << ";  c1 " #OP " c2 produces "; \
  out << (c1 OP c2); \
  out << endl;
  TRYC(<) TRYC(>) TRYC(==) TRYC(!=) TRYC(<=)
  TRYC(>=) TRYC(&&) TRYC(||)
}

// Member operators (implicit "this"):
class Byte { // Combine this with Unary.cpp
  unsigned char b;
public:
  Byte(unsigned char bb = 0) : b(bb) {}
  // No side effects: const member function:
  const Byte
    operator+(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b + right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator-(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b - right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator*(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b * right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator/(const Byte& right) const {
    require(right.b != 0, "divide by zero");
    return Byte(b / right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator%(const Byte& right) const {
    require(right.b != 0, "modulo by zero");
    return Byte(b % right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator^(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b ^ right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator&(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b & right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator|(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b | right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator<<(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b << right.b);
  }
  const Byte
    operator>>(const Byte& right) const {
    return Byte(b >> right.b);
  }
  // Assignments modify & return lvalue.
  // operator= can only be a member function:
  Byte& operator=(const Byte& right) {
    // Handle self-assignment:
    if(this == &right) return *this;
    b = right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator+=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b += right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator-=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b -= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator*=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b *= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator/=(const Byte& right) {
    require(right.b != 0, "divide by zero");
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b /= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator%=(const Byte& right) {
    require(right.b != 0, "modulo by zero");
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b %= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator^=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b ^= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator&=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b &= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator|=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b |= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator>>=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b >>= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  Byte& operator<<=(const Byte& right) {
    if(this == &right) {/* self-assignment */}
    b <<= right.b;
    return *this;
  }
  // Conditional operators return true/false:
  int operator==(const Byte& right) const {
      return b == right.b;
  }
  int operator!=(const Byte& right) const {
      return b != right.b;
  }
  int operator<(const Byte& right) const {
      return b < right.b;
  }
  int operator>(const Byte& right) const {
      return b > right.b;
  }
  int operator<=(const Byte& right) const {
      return b <= right.b;
  }
  int operator>=(const Byte& right) const {
      return b >= right.b;
  }
  int operator&&(const Byte& right) const {
      return b && right.b;
  }
  int operator||(const Byte& right) const {
      return b || right.b;
  }
  // Write the contents to an ostream:
  void print(ostream& os) const {
    os << "0x" << hex << int(b) << dec;
  }
};

void k(Byte& b1, Byte& b2) {
  b1 = b1 * b2 + b2 % b1;

  #define TRY2(OP) \
  out << "b1 = "; b1.print(out); \
  out << ", b2 = "; b2.print(out); \
  out << ";  b1 " #OP " b2 produces "; \
  (b1 OP b2).print(out); \
  out << endl;

  b1 = 9; b2 = 47;
  TRY2(+) TRY2(-) TRY2(*) TRY2(/)
  TRY2(%) TRY2(^) TRY2(&) TRY2(|)
  TRY2(<<) TRY2(>>) TRY2(+=) TRY2(-=)
  TRY2(*=) TRY2(/=) TRY2(%=) TRY2(^=)
  TRY2(&=) TRY2(|=) TRY2(>>=) TRY2(<<=)
  TRY2(=) // Assignment operator

  // Conditionals:
  #define TRYC2(OP) \
  out << "b1 = "; b1.print(out); \
  out << ", b2 = "; b2.print(out); \
  out << ";  b1 " #OP " b2 produces "; \
  out << (b1 OP b2); \
  out << endl;

  b1 = 9; b2 = 47;
  TRYC2(<) TRYC2(>) TRYC2(==) TRYC2(!=) TRYC2(<=)
  TRYC2(>=) TRYC2(&&) TRYC2(||)

  // Chained assignment:
  Byte b3 = 92;
  b1 = b2 = b3;
}

int main() {
  Integer c1(47), c2(9);
  h(c1, c2);
  out << "\n member functions:" << endl;
  Byte b1(47), b2(9);
  k(b1, b2);

} ///:~

You can see that operator= is only allowed to be a member function. This is explained later.

Notice that all the assignment operators have code to check for self-assignment , as a general guideline. In some cases this is not necessary; for example, with operator+= you may want to say A+=A and have it add A to itself. The most important place to check for self-assignment is operator= because with complicated objects disastrous results may occur. (In some cases it’s OK, but you should always keep it in mind when writing operator=.)

All of the operators shown in the previous two examples are overloaded to handle a single type. It’s also possible to overload operators to handle mixed types, so you can add apples to oranges, for example. Before you start on an exhaustive overloading of operators, however, you should look at the section on automatic type conversion later in this chapter. Often, a type conversion in the right place can save you a lot of overloaded operators.

Arguments & return values

It may seem a little confusing at first when you look at Unary.cpp and Binary.cpp and see all the different ways that arguments are passed and returned. Although you can pass and return arguments any way you want to, the choices in these examples were not selected at random. They follow a very logical pattern, the same one you’ll want to use in most of your choices.

As with any function argument, if you only need to read from the argument and not change it, default to passing it as a const reference . Ordinary arithmetic operations (like + and –, etc.) and Booleans will not change their arguments, so pass by const reference is predominantly what you’ll use. When the function is a class member, this translates to making it a const member function. Only with the operator-assignments (like +=) and the operator=, which change the left-hand argument, is the left argument not a constant, but it’s still passed in as an address because it will be changed.
The type of return value you should select depends on the expected meaning of the operator. (Again, you can do anything you want with the arguments and return values.) If the effect of the operator is to produce a new value, you will need to generate a new object as the return value. For example, Integer::operator+ must produce an Integer object that is the sum of the operands. This object is returned by value as a const, so the result cannot be modified as an lvalue.
All the assignment operators modify the lvalue. To allow the result of the assignment to be used in chained expressions, like A=B=C, it’s expected that you will return a reference to that same lvalue that was just modified. But should this reference be a const or non const? Although you read A=B=C from left to right, the compiler parses it from right to left, so you’re not forced to return a non const to support assignment chaining. However, people do sometimes expect to be able to perform an operation on the thing that was just assigned to, such as (A=B).func( ); to call func( ) on A after assigning B to it. Thus the return value for all the assignment operators should be a non const reference to the lvalue.
For the logical operators , everyone expects to get at worst an int back, and at best a bool. (Libraries developed before most compilers supported C++’s built-in bool will use int or an equivalent typedef).
The increment and decrement operators present a dilemma because of the pre- and postfix versions. Both versions change the object and so cannot treat the object as a const. The prefix version returns the value of the object after it was changed, so you expect to get back the object that was changed. Thus, with prefix you can just return *this as a reference. The postfix version is supposed to return the value before the value is changed, so you’re forced to create a separate object to represent that value and return it. Thus, with postfix you must return by value if you want to preserve the expected meaning. (Note that you’ll often find the increment and decrement operators returning an int or bool to indicate, for example, whether an iterator is at the end of a list). Now the question is: Should these be returned as const or non const? If you allow the object to be modified and someone writes (++A).func( );, func( ) will be operating on A itself, but with (A++).func( );, func( ) operates on the temporary object returned by the postfix operator++. Temporary objects are automatically const, so this would be flagged by the compiler, but for consistency’s sake it may make more sense to make them both const, as was done here. Because of the variety of meanings you may want to give the increment and decrement operators, they will need to be considered on a case-by-case basis.

Return by value as const

Returning by value as a const can seem a bit subtle at first, and so deserves a bit more explanation. Consider the binary operator+. If you use it in an expression such as f(A+B), the result of A+B becomes a temporary object that is used in the call to f( ). Because it’s a temporary, it’s automatically const, so whether you explicitly make the return value const or not has no effect.

However, it’s also possible for you to send a message to the return value of A+B, rather than just passing it to a function. For example, you can say (A+B).g( ), where g( ) is some member function of Integer, in this case. By making the return value const, you state that only a const member function can be called for that return value. This is const-correct, because it prevents you from storing potentially valuable information in an object that will most likely be lost.

return efficiency

When new objects are created to return by value, notice the form used. In operator+, for example:

return Integer(left.i + right.i);

This may look at first like a “function call to a constructor,” but it’s not. The syntax is that of a temporary object; the statement says “make a temporary Integer object and return it.” Because of this, you might think that the result is the same as creating a named local object and returning that. However, it’s quite different. If you were to say instead:

Integer tmp(left.i + right.i);

return tmp;

three things will happen. First, the tmp object is created including its constructor call. Then, the copy-constructor copies the tmp to the location of the outside return value. Finally, the destructor is called for tmp at the end of the scope.

In contrast, the “returning a temporary” approach works quite differently. When the compiler sees you do this, it knows that you have no other need for the object it’s creating than to return it so it builds the object directly into the location of the outside return value. This requires only a single ordinary constructor call (no copy-constructor is necessary) and there’s no destructor call because you never actually create a local object. Thus, while it doesn’t cost anything but programmer awareness, it’s significantly more efficient.

Unusual operators

Several additional operators have a slightly different syntax for overloading.

The subscript, operator[ ], must be a member function and it requires a single argument. Because it implies that the object acts like an array, you will often return a reference from this operator, so it can be used conveniently on the left-hand side of an equal sign. This operator is commonly overloaded; you’ll see examples in the rest of the book.

The comma operator is called when it appears next to an object of the type the comma is defined for. However, operator, is not called for function argument lists, only for objects that are out in the open, separated by commas. There doesn’t seem to be a lot of practical uses for this operator; it’s in the language for consistency. Here’s an example showing how the comma function can be called when the comma appears before an object, as well as after:

//: C12:Comma.cpp
// Overloading the ‘,’ operator
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class After {
public:
  const After& operator,(const After&) const {
    cout << "After::operator,()" << endl;
    return *this;
  }
};

class Before {};

Before& operator,(int, Before& b) {
  cout << "Before::operator,()" << endl;
  return b;
}

int main() {
  After a, b;
  a, b;  // Operator comma called

  Before c;
  1, c;  // Operator comma called

} ///:~

The global function allows the comma to be placed before the object in question. The usage shown is fairly obscure and questionable. Although you would probably use a comma-separated list as part of a more complex expression, it’s too subtle to use in most situations.

The function call operator( ) must be a member function, and it is unique in that it allows any number of arguments. It makes your object look like it’s actually a function name, so it’s probably best used for types that only have a single operation, or at least an especially prominent one.

The operators new and delete control dynamic storage allocation, and can be overloaded. This very important topic is covered in the next chapter.

The operator–>* is a binary operator that behaves like all the other binary operators. It is provided for those situations when you want to mimic the behavior provided by the built-in pointer-to-member syntax, described in the previous chapter.

The smart pointer operator–> is designed to be used when you want to make an object appear to be a pointer. This is especially useful if you want to “wrap” a class around a pointer to make that pointer safe, or in the common usage of an iterator, which is an object that moves through a collection or container of other objects and selects them one at a time, without providing direct access to the implementation of the container. (You’ll often find containers and iterators in class libraries.)

A smart pointer must be a member function. It has additional, atypical constraints: It must return either an object (or reference to an object) that also has a smart pointer or a pointer that can be used to select what the smart pointer arrow is pointing at. Here’s a simple example:

//: C12:Smartp.cpp
// Smart pointer example
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std;

class Obj {
  static int i, j;
public:
  void f() { cout << i++ << endl; }
  void g() { cout << j++ << endl; }
};

// Static member definitions:
int Obj::i = 47;
int Obj::j = 11;

// Container:
class ObjContainer {
  static const int sz = 100;
  Obj* a[sz];
  int index;
public:
  ObjContainer() {
    index = 0;
    memset(a, 0, sz * sizeof(Obj*));
  }
  void add(Obj* obj) {
    if(index >= sz) return;
    a[index++] = obj;
  }
  friend class Sp;
};

// Iterator:
class Sp {
  ObjContainer* oc;
  int index;
public:
  Sp(ObjContainer* objc) {
    index = 0;
    oc = objc;
  }
  // Return value indicates end of list:
  int operator++() { // Prefix
    if(index >= oc->sz) return 0;
    if(oc->a[++index] == 0) return 0;
    return 1;
  }
  int operator++(int) { // Postfix
    return operator++(); // Use prefix version
  }
  Obj* operator->() const {
    if(oc->a[index]) return oc->a[index];
    static Obj dummy;
    return &dummy;
  }
};

int main() {
  const int sz = 10;
  Obj o[sz];
  ObjContainer oc;
  for(int i = 0; i < sz; i++)
    oc.add(&o[i]); // Fill it up
  Sp sp(&oc); // Create an iterator
  do {
    sp->f(); // Smart pointer calls
    sp->g();
  } while(sp++);

} ///:~

The class Obj defines the objects that are manipulated in this program. The functions f( ) and g( ) simply print out interesting values using static data members. Pointers to these objects are stored inside containers of type ObjContainer using its add( ) function. ObjContainer looks like an array of pointers, but you’ll notice there’s no way to get the pointers back out again. However, Sp is declared as a friend class, so it has permission to look inside the container. The Sp class looks very much like an intelligent pointer – you can move it forward using operator++ (you can also define an operator– – ), it won’t go past the end of the container it’s pointing to, and it returns (via the smart pointer operator) the value it’s pointing to. Notice that an iterator is a custom fit for the container it’s created for – unlike a pointer, there isn’t a “general purpose” iterator. Containers and iterators are covered in more depth in Chapter XX.

In main( ), once the container oc is filled with Obj objects, an iterator SP is created. The smart pointer calls happen in the expressions:

   sp->f(); // Smart pointer calls

sp->g();

Here, even though sp doesn’t actually have f( ) and g( ) member functions, the smart pointer mechanism calls those functions for the Obj* that is returned by Sp::operator–>. The compiler performs all the checking to make sure the function call works properly.

Although the underlying mechanics of the smart pointer are more complex than the other operators, the goal is exactly the same – to provide a more convenient syntax for the users of your classes.

Operators you can’t overload

There are certain operators in the available set that cannot be overloaded. The general reason for the restriction is safety: If these operators were overloadable, it would somehow jeopardize or break safety mechanisms. Often it makes things harder, or confuses existing practice.

The member selection operator.. Currently, the dot has a meaning for any member in a class, but if you allow it to be overloaded, then you couldn’t access members in the normal way; instead you’d have to use a pointer and the arrow operator –>.

The pointer to member dereference operator.*. For the same reason as operator..

There’s no exponentiation operator . The most popular choice for this was operator** from Fortran, but this raised difficult parsing questions. Also, C has no exponentiation operator, so C++ didn’t seem to need one either because you can always perform a function call. An exponentiation operator would add a convenient notation, but no new language functionality, to account for the added complexity of the compiler.

There are no user-defined operators. That is, you can’t make up new operators that aren’t currently in the set. Part of the problem is how to determine precedence, and part of the problem is an insufficient need to account for the necessary trouble.

You can’t change the precedence rules. They’re hard enough to remember as it is, without letting people play with them.

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