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Subject: How Law Enforcement Tracks Cellular Phones
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http://www.crypto.com/blog/celltapping/
13 December 2013
How Law Enforcement Tracks Cellular Phones
A brief taxonomy of wiretapping esoterica.
Recall NGNR2000 DNRRecent news stories, notably
<
http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/12/08/cellphone-data-spying-
nsa-police/3902809/> this story in USA Today and
<
http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/agencies-collected-da
ta-on-americans-cellphone-use-in-thousands-of-tower-dumps/2013/12/08/2054919
0-5e80-11e3-be07-006c776266ed_story.html> this story in the Washington Post,
have brought to light extensive use of "Stingray" devices and "tower dumps"
by federal -- and local -- law enforcement agencies to track cellular
telephones.
Just how how does all this tracking and interception technology work? There
are actually a surprising number of different ways law enforcement agencies
can track and get information about phones, each of which exposes different
information in different ways. And it's all steeped in arcane surveillance
jargon that's evolved over decades of changes in the law and the technology.
So now seems like a good time to summarize what the various phone tapping
methods actually are, how they work, and how they differ from one another.
Note that this post is concerned specifically with phone tracking as done by
US domestic law enforcement agencies. Intelligence agencies engaged in bulk
surveillance, such as the NSA, have different requirements, constraints, and
resources, and generally use different techniques. For example, it was
recently revealed that NSA has access to
<
http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-tracking-cellphon
e-locations-worldwide-snowden-documents-show/2013/12/04/5492873a-5cf2-11e3-b
c56-c6ca94801fac_story.html> international phone "roaming" databases used by
phone companies to route calls. The NSA apparently collects vast amounts of
telephone "metadata" to discover hidden communications patterns,
relationships, and behaviors across the world. There's also evidence of some
data sharing to law enforcement from the intelligence side (see, for
example, the DEA's "Hemisphere" program). But, as interesting and important
as that is, it has little to do with the "retail" phone tracking techniques
used by local law enforcement, and it's not our focus here.
Phone tracking by law enforcement agencies, in contrast to intelligence
agencies, is intended to support investigations of specific crimes and to
gather evidence for use in prosecutions. And so their interception
technology -- and the underlying law -- is supposed to be focused on
obtaining information about the communications of particular targets rather
than of the population at large.
In all, there are six major distinct phone tracking and tapping methods used
by investigators in the US: "call detail records requests", "pen
register/trap and trace", "content wiretaps", "E911 pings", "tower dumps",
and "Stingray/IMSI Catchers". Each reveals somewhat different information at
different times, and each has its own legal implications. An agency might
use any or all of them over the course of a given investigation. Let's take
them one by one.
_____
The first of these techniques involves targeted, retrospective records
requests.
1. Call Detail Records (CDR) Requests
"Call detail records" ("CDRs") are the official billing records maintained
by the telephone company about call activity -- the incoming and outgoing
calls made and received by each subscriber. This includes the date and time
of the call, the telephone number dialed (or from which the subscriber was
called), whether the call was completed, and the length of the call. For
cellular phones, CDRs will typically also identify the local cellular "base
stations" that serviced the call. Because a phone generally registers itself
with the nearest base station, knowing the base station that served a call
tells you the location of the subscriber at the time the call occurred (but
see below). Note that CDRs do not record the voice content of phone calls,
although SMS messaging text is typically stored. (Voicemail content is also
generally stored by the phone company, but that's different from a CDR for
wiretapping purposes).
Every call made or received generates a CDR record. Data services, such as
SMS messaging and Internet access, also generate CDRs. (Apps on modern
smartphones will often access the Internet frequently without explicit
action by the user, so your phone may be generating CDRs even when you're
not actually using it.) All phone companies routinely maintain CDRs
internally for all their subscribers, not just those under investigation by
the police. These records are typically stored for anywhere from a few years
to forever, depending on the policy of the particular company.
Although CDRs are sometimes called "billing records", they are still
generated for subscribers who have flat rate services or who otherwise might
not receive itemized bills that list every call made.
Law enforcement agencies can generally request CDRs about a particular
subscriber with what amounts to a simple subpoena that attests that the
request is relevant to an investigation. These requests are supposed to be
targeted; they ask for the CDRs associated with a given phone number during
a given time period. Because CDRs are routinely generated for everyone, this
allows an investigator to retrospectively examine the phone activity of just
about anyone, even activity from before they came to the attention of the
authorities.
Whether the CDRs delivered to law enforcement in response to a subpoena will
(or should) include the cell base station information (which effectively
reveals the target's location) is a matter of some controversy. A number of
courts are requiring warrants (a much higher legal standard) for requests
that include location information (see for example
<
https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/smith_opinion_denying_warrantless_cell_ph
one_tracking_sdtx.pdf> this opinion [pdf]). How revealing is base station
location information? It depends, but can be quite precise; see my
<
http://www.crypto.com/papers/blaze-20130425_final.pdf> testimony earlier
this year in the House Judiciary Committee [pdf] for a discussion.
SMS text is usually not delivered to law enforcement in response to a CDR
request; that generally requires a content warrant.
Next are a variety of targeted real time, prospective intercept techniques.
2. Pen Register / Trap and Trace
CDRs are retrospective. They reveal past activity, but the records may
require some time to deliver after being requested. However, the same data
contained in CDRs can also be delivered to law enforcement in real time,
whenever calls are made or received by the target. For historical reasons,
information delivered about the numbers dialed in outgoing calls is called a
"pen register" (also sometimes called a "dialed number recorder" or "DNR"),
while information about incoming calls is called a "trap and trace". In
practice, pen registers and trap and traces for a target are almost always
requested and delivered together, and the term "pen register" is sometimes
used to refer to both kinds of real time data.
In the days of analog wired telephones, pen registers involved physically
tapping into the target's phone wires and installing a device that detected
rotary dialed digit pulses on the line, electro-mechanically registering
them as ink marks on paper (hence the term). Today, telephone company
switches (for both wired and cellular phones) are required to include a
so-called "lawful access" interface that can be configured to electronically
deliver call information about targeted subscribers to law enforcement
agencies in real time. This feature is sometimes called the "CALEA
interface" (for the law that mandated it) or the "J-STD-25 interface" (for
the technical standard that it follows). The CALEA interface is supposed to
be controlled by the telephone company, which configures it to deliver
activity associated with the phone numbers specified in law enforcement
requests. While it may take some time for the phone company to set up a new
intercept for a particular phone number, once this is done all call
information is delivered to the law enforcement agency as soon as it occurs.
The legal standard for getting a pen register / trap and trace is similar to
that for a CDR request: essentially an attestation to a court that the
information is relevant to an investigation.
As with CDRs, pen registers (and trap and traces) for cellular phones can
include cell site information giving the target's location at the time of
each call event. And as with CDRs, this is a matter of some controversy,
with some courts requiring a warrant for requests that include location
data. (Again, see the links in the previous section for more discussion.)
3. Content Wiretaps
When we think of "wiretaps", we generally think of an investigator listening
in to the actual audio of calls. In fact, compared with CDR requests and pen
registers, audio content wiretaps by law enforcement are relatively rare.
There are two reasons for this. First, they are quite labor intensive.
Modern computer techniques make call records -- "metadata" -- relatively
easy to automatically process and analyze in the aggregate, allowing a human
investigator to quickly discern patterns of activity without having to
examine each record by hand. Call content, on the other hand, has to be
interpreted by a human. Every minute the subject talks is a minute an
investigator must spend listening, who then must try to figure out what,
exactly, was meant by what was said.
Also, content wiretaps are governed by much more stringent legal standards
than CDR requests and pen registers.
<
https://it.ojp.gov/default.aspx?page=1284> Federal wiretap law requires a
special warrant based on a showing of probable cause that the wiretap will
yield evidence of a crime, and that other investigative methods would be
ineffective.
Call audio of the target of a content tap is delivered to law enforcement in
real time using the same "lawful access" phone switch features used to
deliver pen register and trap and trace data. The mechanism is the same as a
pen register; the only difference is how the intercept is configured by the
phone company.
In addition to call audio, content wiretaps will generally include the pen
register and trap and trace data that identifies the numbers dialed and the
numbers of incoming callers. For cell phones, it will also generally include
the texts of SMS messages and the base station information that effectively
reveals the phone's location during calls.
4. E911 Pings
The cellular base station IDs contained in CDRs and pen register records for
cellular phones is only one way for law enforcement to obtain the location
of a target. (As noted above, the legal standard for when law enforcement
can get this is currently somewhat unsettled, but, in any case, it is
available to them with a warrant). But this approach has a number of
limitations. In more sparsely populated areas, where base stations are
located far from one another, the nearest base station ID may only locate
the target to within a relatively large area. And CDRs and pen register
records are only generated when a call event occurs (e.g., when a target
makes or receives a call).
But cellular networks also keep track of the location of any subscriber
phones that are powered on and in range of the network, even those not in
the process of making or receiving calls. Cellular phones work by
periodically scanning for and "registering" with the nearest base station
(generally the one with the strongest radio signal). When a phone moves out
of range of one base station, it will search for and register with a base
station in its new area. The latest base station with which a phone has
registered is maintained in a central telephone company database that is
used to route incoming calls to the correct base station. This process is
automatic and transparent to the user; it happens as soon as the phone is
turned on. That is, the current location of every powered on phone in the
network is always known to the cellular carrier.
Law enforcement can request the location of particular subscriber phones
from the phone company. Most cellular companies have the ability to deliver
this information from its databases to law enforcement in near real time,
once the agency has certified that it has legal authorization to request it.
(The legal standard for obtaining this data is, as before, currently a
matter of some controversy). Law enforcement "pings" for a target's location
can typically be performed on demand or at periodic intervals.
Depending on the technical capabilities of the carrier and the subscriber's
handset, the location information delivered in response to a law enforcement
ping might consist simply of the currently registered base station or it
might be more precise than that. Current generation handsets are required to
have the capability to calculate their position to within several meters.
This location information is designed for emergency use and is automatically
transmitted when the subscriber calls 911. In some cases, the carrier can
trigger the "E911" precise location feature remotely (or use signal
triangulation techniques to calculate precise location itself) at law
enforcement request.
Finally, and perhaps less widely known until recently, are two un-targeted,
location-specific cell phone tracking techniques that are increasingly being
used by US federal and local law enforcement. These methods were the subject
of the recent Washington Post and USA Today articles mentioned above.
5. Tower Dumps
Above, we discussed how law enforcement can request the call records
associated with a particular subscriber over a given time period. But what
if they don't know what telephone number to ask for, e.g., they want to
identify potential suspects who were in a certain area at a particular time?
In such cases, they can request a "tower dump" of the cellular base station
(or stations) that serve the target area for the time period of interest.
A tower dump lists the CDRs (and, in some cases, new handset registrations)
generated for a particular base station over some time period. That is, it
is effectively a list of all the telephones and call activity in an area at
a particular time. This allows an investigator to request information about
everyone who was in a given area without having to specify who is being
asked about in the request.
The ability to obtain tower dumps was relatively little known until
recently, but they are now a standard wiretapping service offered to law
enforcement by almost every major cellular carrier. However, the legal
requirements for obtaining tower dumps remain somewhat unclear. They are, by
their nature, untargeted, delivering information about activities of
everyone in an area, most of whom are presumably not, and will never be,
suspects. Tower dumps do not appear to have been anticipated by the
<
http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3123> pen register statute, which
assumes more particular targeting. As awareness and use of tower dumps
grows, this will likely become an issue addressed by the courts.
6. Stingrays / IMSI Catchers
All of the wiretapping and tracking technologies discussed to this point are
implemented by the telephone company in response to a (presumably legal) law
enforcement request. That is, law enforcement cannot conduct them without
the active cooperation of the phone company (which, of course, can be
compelled by a court). However, it is also possible for law enforcement to
use special devices that track cellular phones directly,
Called, variously, "IMSI catchers" or "Stingrays" (the trade name of the
dominant product marketed to law enforcement), these devices identify the
active cellular telephones at a particular location. A Stingray is
essentially a portable "fake" cellular base station that can be carried (or
driven) to the location of interest. Once enabled, the Stingray presents a
strong signal to the cellular phones within its range, causing nearby phones
to attempt to register with the Stingray as if it were a real base station
operated by the cellular carrier. But instead of providing service, the
device simply records the identity of each cellular phone that registered
with it and then shuts itself down.
Stingrays come in a variety of configurations, including semi-portable
models equipped with directional antennas that can be used to identify the
phones in particular streets, houses or rooms. Use of the devices can cause
some disruption to cellular service in an area, so, unlike carrier-based
tracking techniques, they are potentially alerting to the target.
Stingrays are typically used early in an investigation to identify suspects
and their telephone numbers. Once identified by the Stingray, conventional
CDR requests, pen registers, or content taps can be used for further
tracking.
As with tower dumps, the legal requirements for using Stingrays remains
somewhat unclear; at least one recent court case has challenged evidence
obtained by them without a warrant.
Those are the major law enforcement techniques. They aren't the only
tracking and interception methods that an agency could theoretically use,
but these are the six that relate to tracking phones based on their
interaction with a cellular network. That said, there are other
phone-related surveillance tools at law enforcement's disposal as well.
There's some evidence, for example, that the FBI has the ability to install
surveillance malware on the devices of high-value targets, and this could
possibly include cellphones. Location information may also be stored by
third parties (such as companies that provide mapping apps), whose records
law enforcement can get. And we're excluding things like forensic analysis
of seized handsets to obtain stored contact lists, which, while commonly
done, isn't really "tracking" in the sense of this post.
<
http://www.crypto.com/blog> www.crypto.com/blog .
<
http://www.crypto.com/> Matt Blaze . <mailto:m..._at_crypto.com>
m..._at_crypto.com
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nk=3Dpurple><div class=3DWordSection1><p class=3DMsoNormal><a href=3D"http:=
//www.crypto.com/blog/celltapping/">
http://www.crypto.com/blog/celltapping/=
</a><o:p></o:p></p><p class=3DMsoNormal><o:p> </o:p></p><p class=3DMso=
Normal><o:p> </o:p></p><p class=3DMsoNormal align=3Dright style=3D'tex=
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y:"Trebuchet MS","sans-serif";color:#566774;text-transform:uppercase;letter=
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style=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"G=
eorgia","serif"'>How Law Enforcement Tracks Cellular Phones<o:p></o:p></spa=
n></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font=
-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>A brief taxonomy of wiretapping=
esoterica.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-t=
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http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/nationa=
l-security/agencies-collected-data-on-americans-cellphone-use-in-thousands-=
of-tower-dumps/2013/12/08/20549190-5e80-11e3-be07-006c776266ed_story.html">=
<span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;color:#303030'>this story in the Washington=
Post</span></a>, have brought to light extensive use of "Stingray&quo=
t; devices and "tower dumps" by federal -- and local -- law enfor=
cement agencies to track cellular telephones. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p clas=
s=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;l=
ine-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","s=
erif"'>Just how how does all this tracking and interception technology work=
? There are actually a surprising number of different ways law enforcement =
agencies can track and get information about phones, each of which exposes =
different information in different ways. And it's all steeped in arcane sur=
veillance jargon that's evolved over decades of changes in the law and the =
technology. So now seems like a good time to summarize what the various pho=
ne tapping methods actually are, how they work, and how they differ from on=
e another. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-t=
op-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'f=
ont-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Note that this post is conce=
rned specifically with phone tracking as done by US <i>domestic law enforce=
ment</i> agencies. <i>Intelligence</i> agencies engaged in bulk surveillanc=
e, such as the NSA, have different requirements, constraints, and resources=
, and generally use different techniques. For example, it was recently reve=
aled that NSA has access to <a href=3D"
http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/=
national-security/nsa-tracking-cellphone-locations-worldwide-snowden-docume=
nts-show/2013/12/04/5492873a-5cf2-11e3-bc56-c6ca94801fac_story.html"><span =
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;color:#303030'>international phone "roaming&=
quot; databases used by phone companies to route calls</span></a>. The NSA =
apparently collects vast amounts of telephone "metadata" to disco=
ver hidden communications patterns, relationships, and behaviors across the=
world. There's also evidence of some data sharing to law enforcement from =
the intelligence side (see, for example, the DEA's "Hemisphere" p=
rogram). But, as interesting and important as that is, it has little to do =
with the "retail" phone tracking techniques used by local law enf=
orcement, and it's not our focus here. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMso=
Normal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;line-hei=
ght:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>=
Phone tracking by law enforcement agencies, in contrast to intelligence age=
ncies, is intended to support investigations of specific crimes and to gath=
er evidence for use in prosecutions. And so their interception technology -=
- and the underlying law -- is supposed to be focused on obtaining informat=
ion about the communications of <i>particular</i> targets rather than of th=
e population at large. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'=
mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;line-height:18.0pt'><spa=
n style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>In all, there ar=
e six major distinct phone tracking and tapping methods used by investigato=
rs in the US: "call detail records requests", "pen register/=
trap and trace", "content wiretaps", "E911 pings",=
"tower dumps", and "Stingray/IMSI Catchers". Each reve=
als somewhat different information at different times, and each has its own=
legal implications. An agency might use any or all of them over the course=
of a given investigation. Let's take them one by one. <o:p></o:p></span></=
p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-a=
lt:auto;line-height:18.0pt'><a name=3Dfold><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;=
font-family:"Georgia","serif"'> </span></a><span style=3D'font-size:10=
.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'> <o:p></o:p></span></p><div class=3DMso=
Normal align=3Dcenter style=3D'text-align:center;line-height:18.0pt'><span =
style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'><hr size=3D1 width=
=3D20 style=3D'width:15.0pt' align=3Dcenter></span></div><p class=3DMsoNorm=
al style=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family=
:"Georgia","serif"'>The first of these techniques involves <i>targeted, ret=
rospective records</i> requests. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal=
style=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><b><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-famil=
y:"Georgia","serif"'>1. Call Detail Records (CDR) Requests</span></b><span =
style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'> <o:p></o:p></span=
></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><=
span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>"Call de=
tail records" ("CDRs") are the official billing records main=
tained by the telephone company about call activity -- the incoming and out=
going calls made and received by each subscriber. This includes the date an=
d time of the call, the telephone number dialed (or from which the subscrib=
er was called), whether the call was completed, and the length of the call.=
For cellular phones, CDRs will typically also identify the local cellular =
"base stations" that serviced the call. Because a phone generally=
registers itself with the nearest base station, knowing the base station t=
hat served a call tells you the location of the subscriber at the time the =
call occurred (but see below). Note that CDRs do not record the voice conte=
nt of phone calls, although SMS messaging text <i>is</i> typically stored. =
(Voicemail content is also generally stored by the phone company, but that'=
s different from a CDR for wiretapping purposes). <o:p></o:p></span></p><p =
class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:au=
to;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;f=
ont-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Every call made or received generates a CDR r=
ecord. Data services, such as SMS messaging and Internet access, also gener=
ate CDRs. (Apps on modern smartphones will often access the Internet freque=
ntly without explicit action by the user, so your phone may be generating C=
DRs even when you're not actually using it.) All phone companies routinely =
maintain CDRs internally for all their subscribers, not just those under in=
vestigation by the police. These records are typically stored for anywhere =
from a few years to forever, depending on the policy of the particular comp=
any. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt=
:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><sp=
an style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Although CDRs a=
re sometimes called "billing records", they are still generated f=
or subscribers who have flat rate services or who otherwise might not recei=
ve itemized bills that list every call made. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=
=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;ma=
rgin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-f=
amily:"Georgia","serif"'>Law enforcement agencies can generally request CDR=
s about a particular subscriber with what amounts to a simple subpoena that=
attests that the request is relevant to an investigation. These requests a=
re supposed to be targeted; they ask for the CDRs associated with a given p=
hone number during a given time period. Because CDRs are routinely generate=
d for everyone, this allows an investigator to <i>retrospectively</i> exami=
ne the phone activity of just about anyone, even activity from <i>before</i=
> they came to the attention of the authorities. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p c=
lass=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:aut=
o;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;fo=
nt-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Whether the CDRs delivered to law enforcement =
in response to a subpoena will (or should) include the cell base station in=
formation (which effectively reveals the target's location) is a matter of =
some controversy. A number of courts are requiring warrants (a much higher =
legal standard) for requests that include location information (see for exa=
mple <a href=3D"
https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/smith_opinion_denying_war=
rantless_cell_phone_tracking_sdtx.pdf"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;colo=
r:#303030'>this opinion [pdf])</span></a>. How revealing is base station lo=
cation information? It depends, but can be quite precise; see my <a href=3D=
"
http://www.crypto.com/papers/blaze-20130425_final.pdf"><span style=3D'font=
-size:10.0pt;color:#303030'>testimony earlier this year in the House Judici=
ary Committee [pdf]</span></a> for a discussion. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p c=
lass=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:aut=
o;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;fo=
nt-family:"Georgia","serif"'>SMS text is usually <i>not</i> delivered to la=
w enforcement in response to a CDR request; that generally requires a conte=
nt warrant. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-=
top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'=
font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Next are a variety of <i>ta=
rgeted real time, prospective</i> intercept techniques. <o:p></o:p></span><=
/p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><b><span style=3D'font=
-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>2. Pen Register / Trap and Trac=
e</span></b><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>=
<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'margin-left:96.0pt;lin=
e-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","ser=
if"'>CDRs are <i>retrospective.</i> They reveal <i>past</i> activity, but t=
he records may require some time to deliver after being requested. However,=
the same data contained in CDRs can also be delivered to law enforcement i=
n <i>real time,</i> whenever calls are made or received by the target. For =
historical reasons, information delivered about the numbers dialed in outgo=
ing calls is called a "pen register" (also sometimes called a &qu=
ot;dialed number recorder" or "DNR"), while information abou=
t incoming calls is called a "trap and trace". In practice, pen r=
egisters and trap and traces for a target are almost always requested and d=
elivered together, and the term "pen register" is sometimes used =
to refer to both kinds of real time data. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3D=
MsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margi=
n-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-fami=
ly:"Georgia","serif"'>In the days of analog wired telephones, pen registers=
involved physically tapping into the target's phone wires and installing a=
device that detected rotary dialed digit pulses on the line, electro-mecha=
nically registering them as ink marks on paper (hence the term). Today, tel=
ephone company switches (for both wired and cellular phones) are required t=
o include a so-called "lawful access" interface that can be confi=
gured to electronically deliver call information about targeted subscribers=
to law enforcement agencies in real time. This feature is sometimes called=
the "CALEA interface" (for the law that mandated it) or the &quo=
t;J-STD-25 interface" (for the technical standard that it follows). Th=
e CALEA interface is supposed to be controlled by the telephone company, wh=
ich configures it to deliver activity associated with the phone numbers spe=
cified in law enforcement requests. While it may take some time for the pho=
ne company to set up a new intercept for a particular phone number, once th=
is is done all call information is delivered to the law enforcement agency =
as soon as it occurs. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'm=
so-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-h=
eight:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"=
'>The legal standard for getting a pen register / trap and trace is similar=
to that for a CDR request: essentially an attestation to a court that the =
information is relevant to an investigation. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=
=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;ma=
rgin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-f=
amily:"Georgia","serif"'>As with CDRs, pen registers (and trap and traces) =
for cellular phones can include cell site information giving the target's l=
ocation at the time of each call event. And as with CDRs, this is a matter =
of some controversy, with some courts requiring a warrant for requests that=
include location data. (Again, see the links in the previous section for m=
ore discussion.) <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'line-h=
eight:18.0pt'><b><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","ser=
if"'>3. Content Wiretaps</span></b><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-fam=
ily:"Georgia","serif"'> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D=
'margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;fon=
t-family:"Georgia","serif"'>When we think of "wiretaps", we gener=
ally think of an investigator listening in to the actual audio of calls. In=
fact, compared with CDR requests and pen registers, audio content wiretaps=
by law enforcement are relatively rare. There are two reasons for this. Fi=
rst, they are quite labor intensive. Modern computer techniques make call r=
ecords -- "metadata" -- relatively easy to automatically process =
and analyze in the aggregate, allowing a human investigator to quickly disc=
ern patterns of activity without having to examine each record by hand. Cal=
l content, on the other hand, has to be interpreted by a human. Every minut=
e the subject talks is a minute an investigator must spend listening, who t=
hen must try to figure out what, exactly, was meant by what was said. <o:p>=
</o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-=
margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=
=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Also, content wiretaps =
are governed by much more stringent legal standards than CDR requests and p=
en registers. <a href=3D"
https://it.ojp.gov/default.aspx?page=3D1284"><span=
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;color:#303030'>Federal wiretap law</span></a> re=
quires a special warrant based on a showing of probable cause that the wire=
tap will yield evidence of a crime, and that other investigative methods wo=
uld be ineffective. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso=
-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-hei=
ght:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>=
Call audio of the target of a content tap is delivered to law enforcement i=
n real time using the same "lawful access" phone switch features =
used to deliver pen register and trap and trace data. The mechanism is the =
same as a pen register; the only difference is how the intercept is configu=
red by the phone company. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=
=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;l=
ine-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","s=
erif"'>In addition to call audio, content wiretaps will generally include t=
he pen register and trap and trace data that identifies the numbers dialed =
and the numbers of incoming callers. For cell phones, it will also generall=
y include the texts of SMS messages and the base station information that e=
ffectively reveals the phone's location during calls. <o:p></o:p></span></p=
><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><b><span style=3D'font-s=
ize:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>4. E911 Pings</span></b><span sty=
le=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'> <o:p></o:p></span></=
p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><spa=
n style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>The cellular bas=
e station IDs contained in CDRs and pen register records for cellular phone=
s is only one way for law enforcement to obtain the location of a target. (=
As noted above, the legal standard for when law enforcement can get this is=
currently somewhat unsettled, but, in any case, it is available to them wi=
th a warrant). But this approach has a number of limitations. In more spars=
ely populated areas, where base stations are located far from one another, =
the nearest base station ID may only locate the target to within a relative=
ly large area. And CDRs and pen register records are only generated when a =
call event occurs (e.g., when a target makes or receives a call). <o:p></o:=
p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-marg=
in-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'fo=
nt-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>But cellular networks also ke=
ep track of the location of any subscriber phones that are powered on and i=
n range of the network, even those not in the process of making or receivin=
g calls. Cellular phones work by periodically scanning for and "regist=
ering" with the nearest base station (generally the one with the stron=
gest radio signal). When a phone moves out of range of one base station, it=
will search for and register with a base station in its new area. The late=
st base station with which a phone has registered is maintained in a centra=
l telephone company database that is used to route incoming calls to the co=
rrect base station. This process is automatic and transparent to the user; =
it happens as soon as the phone is turned on. That is, the current location=
of every powered on phone in the network is always known to the cellular c=
arrier. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-=
alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'>=
<span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Law enforcem=
ent can request the location of particular subscriber phones from the phone=
company. Most cellular companies have the ability to deliver this informat=
ion from its databases to law enforcement in near real time, once the agenc=
y has certified that it has legal authorization to request it. (The legal s=
tandard for obtaining this data is, as before, currently a matter of some c=
ontroversy). Law enforcement "pings" for a target's location can =
typically be performed on demand or at periodic intervals. <o:p></o:p></spa=
n></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bott=
om-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size=
:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Depending on the technical capabilit=
ies of the carrier and the subscriber's handset, the location information d=
elivered in response to a law enforcement ping might consist simply of the =
currently registered base station or it might be more precise than that. Cu=
rrent generation handsets are required to have the capability to calculate =
their position to within several meters. This location information is desig=
ned for emergency use and is automatically transmitted when the subscriber =
calls 911. In some cases, the carrier can trigger the "E911" prec=
ise location feature remotely (or use signal triangulation techniques to ca=
lculate precise location itself) at law enforcement request. <o:p></o:p></s=
pan></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bo=
ttom-alt:auto;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-fami=
ly:"Georgia","serif"'>Finally, and perhaps less widely known until recently=
, are two <i>un-targeted, location-specific</i> cell phone tracking techniq=
ues that are increasingly being used by US federal and local law enforcemen=
t. These methods were the subject of the recent Washington Post and USA Tod=
ay articles mentioned above. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal sty=
le=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><b><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"G=
eorgia","serif"'>5. Tower Dumps</span></b><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;f=
ont-family:"Georgia","serif"'> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal s=
tyle=3D'margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.=
5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Above, we discussed how law enforcement =
can request the call records associated with a particular <i>subscriber</i>=
over a given time period. But what if they don't know what telephone numbe=
r to ask for, e.g., they want to identify potential suspects who were in a =
certain area at a particular time? In such cases, they can request a "=
tower dump" of the cellular base station (or stations) that serve the =
target <i>area</i> for the time period of interest. <o:p></o:p></span></p><=
p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:=
auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt=
;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>A tower dump lists the CDRs (and, in some c=
ases, new handset registrations) generated for a particular base station ov=
er some time period. That is, it is effectively a list of all the telephone=
s and call activity in an area at a particular time. This allows an investi=
gator to request information about everyone who was in a given area without=
having to specify who is being asked about in the request. <o:p></o:p></sp=
an></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bot=
tom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-siz=
e:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>The ability to obtain tower dumps w=
as relatively little known until recently, but they are now a standard wire=
tapping service offered to law enforcement by almost every major cellular c=
arrier. However, the legal requirements for obtaining tower dumps remain so=
mewhat unclear. They are, by their nature, untargeted, delivering informati=
on about activities of everyone in an area, most of whom are presumably not=
, and will never be, suspects. Tower dumps do not appear to have been antic=
ipated by the <a href=3D"
http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/3123"><s=
pan style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;color:#303030'>pen register statute</span></a=
>, which assumes more particular targeting. As awareness and use of tower d=
umps grows, this will likely become an issue addressed by the courts. <o:p>=
</o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'line-height:18.0pt'><b><span=
style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>6. Stingrays / IM=
SI Catchers</span></b><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia"=
,"serif"'> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'margin-left:=
96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Geo=
rgia","serif"'>All of the wiretapping and tracking technologies discussed t=
o this point are implemented by the telephone company in response to a (pre=
sumably legal) law enforcement request. That is, law enforcement cannot con=
duct them without the active cooperation of the phone company (which, of co=
urse, can be compelled by a court). However, it is also possible for law en=
forcement to use special devices that track cellular phones directly, <o:p>=
</o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-=
margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=
=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Called, variously, &quo=
t;IMSI catchers" or "Stingrays" (the trade name of the domin=
ant product marketed to law enforcement), these devices identify the active=
cellular telephones at a particular location. A Stingray is essentially a =
portable "fake" cellular base station that can be carried (or dri=
ven) to the location of interest. Once enabled, the Stingray presents a str=
ong signal to the cellular phones within its range, causing nearby phones t=
o attempt to register with the Stingray as if it were a real base station o=
perated by the cellular carrier. But instead of providing service, the devi=
ce simply records the identity of each cellular phone that registered with =
it and then shuts itself down. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal s=
tyle=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0=
pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia=
","serif"'>Stingrays come in a variety of configurations, including semi-po=
rtable models equipped with directional antennas that can be used to identi=
fy the phones in particular streets, houses or rooms. Use of the devices ca=
n cause some disruption to cellular service in an area, so, unlike carrier-=
based tracking techniques, they are potentially alerting to the target. <o:=
p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;ms=
o-margin-bottom-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=
=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Stingrays are typically=
used early in an investigation to identify suspects and their telephone nu=
mbers. Once identified by the Stingray, conventional CDR requests, pen regi=
sters, or content taps can be used for further tracking. <o:p></o:p></span>=
</p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom=
-alt:auto;margin-left:96.0pt;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:1=
0.5pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif"'>As with tower dumps, the legal require=
ments for using Stingrays remains somewhat unclear; at least one recent cou=
rt case has challenged evidence obtained by them without a warrant. <o:p></=
o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-ma=
rgin-bottom-alt:auto;line-height:18.0pt'><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;fo=
nt-family:"Georgia","serif"'>Those are the major law enforcement techniques=
. They aren't the only tracking and interception methods that an agency cou=
ld theoretically use, but these are the six that relate to tracking phones =
based on their interaction with a cellular network. That said, there are ot=
her phone-related surveillance tools at law enforcement's disposal as well.=
There's some evidence, for example, that the FBI has the ability to instal=
l surveillance malware on the devices of high-value targets, and this could=
possibly include cellphones. Location information may also be stored by th=
ird parties (such as companies that provide mapping apps), whose records la=
w enforcement can get. And we're excluding things like forensic analysis of=
seized handsets to obtain stored contact lists, which, while commonly done=
, isn't really "tracking" in the sense of this post.<o:p></o:p></=
span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal><span style=3D'font-size:10.5pt;font-family:"=
Georgia","serif"'><br clear=3Dall><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNorma=
l align=3Dcenter style=3D'text-align:center;line-height:24.0pt'><span style=
=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New";color:#5F3913'><a href=3D"ht=
tp://www.crypto.com/blog"><span style=3D'font-family:"Georgia","serif";colo=
r:#303030'>www.crypto.com/blog</span></a> • <a href=3D"
http://www.cry=
pto.com/"><span style=3D'font-family:"Georgia","serif";color:#303030'>Matt =
Blaze</span></a> • <a href=3D"mailto:m..._at_crypto.com"><span style=3D'=
font-family:"Georgia","serif";color:#303030'>m..._at_crypto.com</span></a></sp=
an><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Georgia","serif";color:#5F3=
913'> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=3DMsoNormal><o:p> </o:p></p></div=
></body></html>
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Received on Sat Mar 02 2024 - 00:57:18 CST