PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
"Propaganda Techniques" is based upon "Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques"
from "Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1" published by
Headquarters; Department of the Army, in Washington DC, on 31 August
1979 (from
http://www.zoehouse.com/is/sco/proptech.html)
Knowledge of propaganda techniques is necessary to improve one's own
propaganda and to uncover enemy PSYOP stratagems. Techniques, however,
are not substitutes for the procedures in PSYOP planning, development,
or dissemination.
Techniques may be categorized as:
Characteristics of the content self-evident. additional information is
required to recognize the characteristics of this type of propaganda.
"Name calling" and the use of slogans are techniques of this nature.
Additional information required to be recognized. Additional information
is required by the target or analyst for the use of this technique to be
recognized. "Lying" is an example of this technique. The audience or
analyst must have additional information in order to know whether a lie
is being told.
Evident only after extended output. "Change of pace" is an example of
this technique. Neither the audience nor the analyst can know that a
change of pace has taken place until various amounts of propaganda have
been brought into focus.
Nature of the arguments used. An argument is a reason, or a series of
reasons, offered as to why the audience should behave, believe, or think
in a certain manner. An argument is expressed or implied.
Inferred intent of the originator. This technique refers to the effect
the propagandist wishes to achieve on the target audience. "Divisive"
and "unifying" propaganda fall within this technique. It might also be
classified on the basis of the effect it has on an audience.
SELF-EVIDENT TECHNIQUE
Appeal to Authority. Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to
support a position idea, argument, or course of action.
Assertion. Assertions are positive statements presented as fact. They
imply that what is stated is self-evident and needs no further proof.
Assertions may or may not be true.
Bandwagon and Inevitable Victory. Bandwagon-and-inevitable-victory
appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to take a course of
action "everyone else is taking." "Join the crowd." This technique
reinforces people's natural desire to be on the winning side. This
technique is used to convince the audience that a program is an
expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it is in their
interest to join. "Inevitable victory" invites those not already on the
bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those
already, or partially, on the bandwagon are reassured that staying
aboard is the best course of action.
Obtain Disapproval. This technique is used to get the audience to
disapprove an action or idea by suggesting the idea is popular with
groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. Thus,
if a group which supports a policy is led to believe that undesirable,
subversive, or contemptible people also support it, the members of the
group might decide to change their position.
Glittering Generalities. Glittering generalities are intensely
emotionally appealing words so closely associated with highly valued
concepts and beliefs that they carry conviction without supporting
information or reason. They appeal to such emotions as love of country,
home; desire for peace, freedom, glory, honor, etc. They ask for
approval without examination of the reason. Though the words and phrases
are vague and suggest different things to different people, their
connotation is always favorable: "The concepts and programs of the
propagandist are always good, desirable, virtuous."
Generalities may gain or lose effectiveness with changes in conditions.
They must, therefore, be responsive to current conditions. Phrases which
called up pleasant associations at one time may evoke unpleasant or
unfavorable connotations at another, particularly if their frame of
reference has been altered.
Vagueness. Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may
supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by
use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting
to determine their reasonableness or application.
Rationalization. Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to
rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are
often used to justify such actions or beliefs.
Simplification. Favorable generalities are used to provide simple
answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems.
Transfer. This is a technique of projecting positive or negative
qualities (praise or blame) of a person, entity, object, or value (an
individual, group, organization, nation, patriotism, etc.) to another in
order to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. This
technique is generally used to transfer blame from one member of a
conflict to another. It evokes an emotional response which stimulates
the target to identify with recognized authorities.
Least of Evils. This is a technique of acknowledging that the course of
action being taken is perhaps undesirable but that any alternative would
result in an outcome far worse. This technique is generally used to
explain the need for sacrifices or to justify the seemingly harsh
actions that displease the target audience or restrict personal
liberties. Projecting blame on the enemy for the unpleasant or
restrictive conditions is usually coupled with this technique.
Name Calling or Substitutions of Names or Moral Labels. This technique
attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of
the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates,
loathes, or finds undesirable.
Types of name calling:
Direct name calling is used when the audience is sympathetic or neutral.
It is a simple, straightforward attack on an opponent or opposing idea.
Indirect name calling is used when direct name calling would antagonize
the audience. It is a label for the degree of attack between direct name
calling and insinuation. Sarcasm and ridicule are employed with this
technique.
Cartoons, illustrations, and photographs are used in name calling, often
with deadly effect.
Dangers inherent in name calling: In its extreme form, name calling may
indicate that the propagandist has lost his sense of proportion or is
unable to conduct a positive campaign. Before using this technique, the
propagandist must weigh the benefits against the possible harmful
results. It is best to avoid use of this device. The obstacles are
formidable, based primarily on the human tendency to close ranks against
a stranger. For example, a group may despise, dislike, or even hate one
of its leaders, even openly criticize him, but may (and probably will)
resent any non group member who criticizes and makes disparaging remarks
against that leader.
Pinpointing the Enemy: This is a form of simplification in which a
complex situation is reduced to the point where the "enemy" is
unequivocally identified. For example, the president of country X is
forced to declare a state of emergency in order to protect the peaceful
people of his country from the brutal, unprovoked aggression by the
leaders of country Y.
Plain Folks or Common Man: The "plain folks" or "common man" approach
attempts to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions
reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the
confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner and
style of the audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and
mannerisms (and clothes in face-to-face and audiovisual communications)
in attempting to identify their point of view with that of the average
person. With the plain folks device, the propagandist can win the
confidence of persons who resent or distrust foreign sounding,
intellectual speech, words, or mannerisms. The audience can be persuaded
to identify its interests with those of the propagandist:
Presenting soldiers as plain folks. The propagandist wants to make the
enemy feel he is fighting against soldiers who are "decent, everyday
folks" much like himself; this helps to counter themes that paint the
opponent as a "bloodthirsty" killer.
Presenting civilians as plain folks. The "plain folks" or "common man"
device also can help to convince the enemy that the opposing nation is
not composed of arrogant, immoral, deceitful, aggressive, warmongering
people, but of people like himself, wishing to live at peace.
Humanizing leaders. This technique paints a more human portrait of US
and friendly military and civilian leaders. It humanizes them so that
the audience looks upon them as similar human beings or, preferably, as
kind, wise, fatherly figures.
Categories of Plain Folk Devices:
Vernacular. This is the contemporary language of a specific region or
people as it is commonly spoken or written and includes songs, idioms,
and jokes. The current vernacular of the specific target audience must
be used.
Dialect. Dialect is a variation in pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary from the norm of a region or nation. When used by the
propagandist, perfection is required. This technique is best left to
those to whom the dialect is native, because native level speakers are
generally the best users of dialects in propaganda appeals.
Errors. Scholastic pronunciation, enunciation, and delivery give the
impression of being artificial. To give the impression of spontaneity,
deliberately hesitate between phrases, stammer, or mispronounce words.
When not overdone, the effect is one of deep sincerity. Errors in
written material may be made only when they are commonly made by members
of the reading audience. Generally, errors should be restricted to
colloquialisms.
Homey words. Homey words are forms of "virtue words" used in the
everyday life of the average man. These words are familiar ones, such as
"home," "family," "children," "farm," "neighbors," or cultural
equivalents. They evoke a favorable emotional response and help transfer
the sympathies of the audience to the propagandist. Homey words are
widely used to evoke nostalgia. Care must be taken to assure that homey
messages addressed to enemy troops do not also have the same effect on
US/friendly forces.
If the propaganda or the propagandist lacks naturalness, there may be an
adverse backlash. The audience may resent what it considers attempts to
mock it, its language, and its ways.
Social Disapproval. This is a technique by which the propagandist
marshals group acceptance and suggests that attitudes or actions
contrary to the one outlined will result in social rejection,
disapproval, or outright ostracism. The latter, ostracism, is a control
practice widely used within peer groups and traditional societies.
Virtue Words. These are words in the value system of the target audience
which tend to produce a positive image when attached to a person or
issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, etc., are
virtue words.
Slogans. A slogan is a brief striking phrase that may include labeling
and stereotyping. If ideas can be sloganized, they should be, as good
slogans are self-perpetuating.
Testimonials. Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context,
especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program,
or personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected public
figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is exploited. The
testimonial places the official sanction of a respected person or
authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort to cause
the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept
the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own. Several types of
testimonials are:
Official Sanction. The testimonial authority must have given the
endorsement or be clearly on record as having approved the attributed
idea, concept, action, or belief. Four factors are involved:
Accomplishment. People have confidence in an authority who has
demonstrated outstanding ability and proficiency in his field. This
accomplishment should be related to the subject of the testimonial.
Identification with the target. People have greater confidence in an
authority with whom they have a common bond. For example, the soldier
more readily trusts an officer with whom he has undergone similar
arduous experiences than a civilian authority on military subjects.
Position of authority. The official position of authority may instill
confidence in the testimony; i.e., head of state, division commander, etc.
Inanimate objects. Inanimate objects may be used in the testimonial
device. In such cases, the propagandist seeks to transfer physical
attributes of an inanimate object to the message. The Rock of Gibraltar,
for example, is a type of inanimate object associated with steadfast
strength.
Personal Sources of Testimonial Authority:
Enemy leaders. The enemy target audience will generally place great
value on its high level military leaders as a source of information.
Fellow soldiers. Because of their common experiences, soldiers form a
bond of comradeship. As a result, those in the armed forces are inclined
to pay close attention to what other soldiers have to say.
Opposing leaders. Testimonials of leaders of the opposing nation are of
particular value in messages that outline war aims and objectives for
administering the enemy nation after it capitulates.
Famous scholars, writers, and other personalities. Frequently,
statements of civilians known to the target as authoritative or famous
scholars, writers, scientists, commentators, etc., can be effectively
used in propaganda messages.
Nonpersonal Sources of Testimonial Authority:
Institutions, ideologies, national flags, religious, and other
nonpersonal sources are often used. The creeds, beliefs, principles, or
dogmas of respected authorities or other public figures may make
effective propaganda testimonials.
Factors To Be Considered:
Plausibility. The testimonial must be plausible to the target audience.
The esteem in which an authority is held by the target audience will not
always transfer an implausible testimonial into effective propaganda.
False testimonials. Never use false testimonials. Highly selective
testimonials? Yes. Lies (fabrications)? Never. Fabricated (false)
testimonials are extremely vulnerable because their lack of authenticity
makes them easy to challenge and discredit.
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES WHICH ARE BASED ON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTENT
BUT WHICH REQUIRE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE PART OF AN ANALYST TO BE
RECOGNIZED
Incredible truths. There are times when the unbelievable (incredible)
truth not only can but should be used. Among these occasions are:
When the psychological operator is certain that a vitally important
event will take place.
A catastrophic event, or one of significant tactical or strategic
importance, unfavorable to the enemy has occurred and the news has been
hidden from the enemy public or troops.
The enemy government has denied or glossed over an event detrimental to
its cause.
A double-cutting edge. This technique has a double-cutting edge: It
increases the credibility of the US/friendly psychological operator
while decreasing the credibility of the enemy to the enemy's target
audience. Advanced security clearance must be obtained before using this
technique so that operations or projects will not be jeopardized or
compromised. Actually, propagandists using this technique will normally
require access to special compartmented information and facilities to
avoid compromise of other sensitive operations or projects of agencies
of the US Government.
Though such news will be incredible to the enemy public, it should be
given full play by the psychological operator. This event and its
significance will eventually become known to the enemy public in spite
of government efforts to hide it. The public will recall (the
psychological operator will "help" the recall process) that the
incredible news was received from US/allied sources. They will also
recall the deception of their government. The prime requirement in using
this technique is that the disseminated incredible truth must be or be
certain to become a reality.
Insinuation. Insinuation is used to create or stir up the suspicions of
the target audience against ideas, groups, or individuals in order to
divide an enemy. The propagandist hints, suggests, and implies, allowing
the audience to draw its own conclusions. Latent suspicions and
cleavages within the enemy camp are exploited in an attempt to structure
them into active expressions of disunity which weaken the enemy's war
effort.
Exploitable vulnerabilities. Potential cleavages which may be exploited
include the following:
- Political differences between the enemy nation and its allies or
satellites.
Ethnic and regional differences.
Religious, political, economic, or social differences.
History of civilian animosity or unfair treatment toward enemy soldiers.
Comforts available to rear area soldiers and not available to combat
soldiers.
People versus the bureaucracy or hierarchy.
Political differences between the ruling elite, between coalitions
members, or between rulers and those out of power.
Differences showing a few benefiting at the expense of the general populace.
Unequal or inequitable tax burdens, or the high level of taxes. The
audience should be informed of hidden taxes.
The scarcity of consumer goods for the general public and their
availability to the various elites and the dishonest.
Costs of present government policies in terms of lost opportunities to
accomplish constructive socially desirable goals.
The powerlessness of the individual. (This may be used to split the
audience from the policies of its government by disassociating its
members from those policies.) This technique could be used in preparing
a campaign to gain opposition to those government policies.
Insinuation devices. A number of devices are available to exploit these
and similar vulnerabilities:
Leading questions: The propagandist may ask questions which suggest only
one possible answer. Thus, the question, "What is there to do now that
your unit is surrounded and you are completely cut off?" insinuates that
surrender or desertion is the only reasonable alternative to annihilation.
Humor: Humor can be an effective form of insinuation. Jokes and cartoons
about the enemy find a ready audience among those persons in the target
country or military camp who normally reject straightforward accusations
or assertions. Jokes about totalitarian leaders and their subordinates
often spread with ease and rapidity. However, the psychological operator
must realize that appreciation of humor differs among target groups and
so keep humor within the appropriate cultural context.
Pure motives. This technique makes it clear that the side represented by
the propagandist is acting in the best interests of the target audience,
insinuating that the enemy is acting to the contrary. For example, the
propagandist can use the theme that a satellite force fighting on the
side of the enemy is insuring the continued subjugation of its country
by helping the common enemy.
Guilt by association: Guilt by association links a person, group, or
idea to other persons, groups, or ideas repugnant to the target
audience. The insinuation is that the connection is not mutual,
accidental, or superficial.
Rumor: Malicious rumors are also a potentially effective form of
insinuation.
Pictorial and photographic propaganda: A photograph, picture, or cartoon
can often insinuate a derogatory charge more effectively than words. The
combination of words and photograph, picture, or cartoon can be far more
effective. In this content, selected and composite photographs can be
extremely effective.
Vocal: Radio propagandists can artfully suggest a derogatory notion, not
only with the words they use, but also by the way in which they deliver
them. Significant pauses, tonal inflections, sarcastic pronunciation,
ridiculing enunciation, can be more subtle than written insinuation.
Card stacking or selective omission. This is the process of choosing
from a variety of facts only those which support the propagandist's
purpose. In using this technique, facts are selected and presented which
most effectively strengthen and authenticate the point of view of the
propagandist. It includes the collection of all available material
pertaining to a subject and the selection of that material which most
effectively supports the propaganda line. Card stacking, case making,
and censorship are all forms of selection. Success or failure depends on
how successful the propagandist is in selecting facts or "cards" and
presenting or "stacking" them.
Increase prestige. In time of armed conflict, leading personalities,
economic and social systems, and other institutions making up a nation
are constantly subjected to propaganda attacks. Card stacking is used to
counter these attacks by publicizing and reiterating the best qualities
of the institutions, concepts, or persons being attacked. Like most
propaganda techniques, card stacking is used to supplement other methods.
The technique may also be used to describe a subject as virtuous or evil
and to give simple answers to a complicated subject.
An intelligent propagandist makes his case by imaginative selection of
facts. The work of the card stacker in using selected facts is divided
into two main phases:
First, the propagandist selects only favorable facts and presents them
to the target in such a manner as to obtain a desired reaction.
Second, the propagandist uses these facts as a basis for conclusions,
trying to lead the audience into accepting the conclusions by accepting
the facts presented.
Presenting the other side. Some persons in a target audience believe
that neither belligerent is entirely virtuous. To them propaganda solely
in terms of right and wrong may not be credible. Agreement with minor
aspects of the enemy's point of view may overcome this cynicism. Another
use of presenting the other side is to reduce the impact of propaganda
that opposing propagandists are likely to be card stacking (selective
omission).
Lying and distortion. Lying is stating as truth that which is contrary
to fact. For example, assertions may be lies. This technique will not be
used by US personnel. It is presented for use of the analyst of enemy
propaganda.
Simplification. This is a technique in which the many facts of a
situation are reduced so the right or wrong, good or evil, of an act or
decision is obvious to all. This technique (simplification) provides
simple solutions for complex problems. By suggesting apparently simple
solutions for complex problems, this technique offers simplified
interpretations of events, ideas, concepts, or personalities. Statements
are positive and firm; qualifying words are never used.
Simplification may be used to sway uneducated and educated audiences.
This is true because many persons are well educated or highly skilled,
trained specialists in a specific field, but the limitations of time and
energy often force them to turn to and accept simplifications to
understand, relate, and react to other areas of interest.
Simplification has the following characteristics:
It thinks for others: Some people accept information which they cannot
verify personally as long as the source is acceptable to them or the
authority is considered expert. Others absorb whatever they read, see,
or hear with little or no discrimination.
Some people are too lazy or unconcerned to think problems through.
Others are uneducated and willingly accept convenient simplifications.
It is concise: Simplification gives the impression of going to the heart
of the matter in a few words. The average member of the target audience
will not even consider that there may be another answer to the problem.
It builds ego: Some people are reluctant to believe that any field of
endeavor, except their own, is difficult to understand. For example, a
layman is pleased to hear that '"law is just common sense dressed up in
fancy language," or "modern art is really a hodgepodge of aimless
experiment or nonsense." Such statements reinforce the ego of the lay
audience. It is what they would like to believe, because they are afraid
that law and modern art may actually be beyond their understanding.
Simple explanations are given for complex subjects and problems.
Stereotyping is a form of simplification used to fit persons, groups,
nations, or events into ready-made categories that tend to produce a
desired image of good or bad. Stereotyping puts the subject (people,
nations, etc.) or event into a simplistic pattern without any
distinguishing individual characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTENT WHICH MAY BECOME EVIDENT WHEN NUMEROUS PIECES
OF OUTPUT ARE EXAMINED
Change of Pace. Change of pace is a technique of switching from
belligerent to peaceful output, from "hot" to "cold," from persuasion to
threat, from gloomy prophecy to optimism, from emotion to fact.
Stalling. Stalling is a technique of deliberately withholding
information until its timeliness is past, thereby reducing the
possibility of undesired impact.
Shift of Scene. With this technique, the propagandist replaces one
"field of battle" with another. It is an attempt to take the spotlight
off an unfavorable situation or condition by shifting it to another,
preferably of the opponent, so as to force the enemy to go on the defense.
REPETITION
An idea or position is repeated in an attempt to elicit an almost
automatic response from the audience or to reinforce an audience's
opinion or attitude. This technique is extremely valid and useful
because the human being is basically a creature of habit and develops
skills and values by repetition (like walking, talking, code of ethics,
etc.). An idea or position may be repeated many times in one message or
in many messages. The intent is the same in both instances, namely, to
elicit an immediate response or to reinforce an opinion or attitude.
The audience is not familiar with the details of the threat posed.
Ignorance of the details can be used to pose a threat and build fear.
Members of the audience are self-centered.
The target can take immediate action to execute simple, specific
instructions.
Fear of change. People fear change, particularly sudden, imposed change
over which they have no control. They fear it will take from them
status, wealth, family, friends, comfort, safety, life, or limb. That's
why the man in the foxhole hesitates to leave it. He knows and is
accustomed to the safety it affords. He is afraid that moving out of his
foxhole will expose him to new and greater danger. That is why the
psychological campaign must give him a safe, honorable way out of his
predicament or situation.
Terrorism. The United States is absolutely opposed to the use of terror
or terror tactics. But the psychological operator can give a boomerang
effect to enemy terror, making it reverberate against the practitioner,
making him repugnant to his own people, and all others who see the
results of his heinous savagery. This can be done by disseminating fully
captioned photographs in the populated areas of the terrorist's
homeland. Such leaflets will separate civilians from their armed forces;
it will give them second thoughts about the decency and honorableness of
their cause, make them wonder about the righteousness of their ideology,
and make the terrorists repugnant to them. Follow-up leaflets can "fire
the flames" of repugnancy, indignation, and doubt, as most civilizations
find terror repugnant.
In third countries. Fully captioned photographs depicting terroristic
acts may be widely distributed in third countries (including the nation
sponsoring the enemy) where they will instill a deep revulsion in the
general populace. Distribution in neutral countries is particularly
desirable in order to swing the weight of unbiased humanitarian opinion
against the enemy.
The enemy may try to rationalize and excuse its conduct (terroristic),
but in so doing, it will compound the adverse effect of its actions,
because it can never deny the validity of true photographic
representations of its acts. Thus, world opinion will sway to the side
of the victimized people.
Friendly territory. Under no circumstances should such leaflets be
distributed in friendly territory. To distribute them in the friendly
area in which the terrorists' acts took place would only create feelings
of insecurity. This would defeat the purpose of the psychological
operator, which is to build confidence in the government or agency he
represents.
Received on Sat Mar 02 2024 - 00:57:26 CST